Good, theories of the

References and further reading

	Anderson, E. (1993) Value in Ethics and Economics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Categorizes different ways in which we value things and examines the moral and other consequences of these categorizations; especially concerned to show that not every form of value may be handled properly by the mechanisms of the market.)
	Aristotle (c. mid 4th century ) Nicomachean Ethics, in The Complete Works of Aristotle, ed. J. Barnes, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984, esp. books I 6–7, X. (Criticizes Plato’s lack of guidance on particular kinds of goodness, gives a functional account of goodness, and discusses the three kinds of life: contemplative, political and hedonistic.)
	Aristotle (c. mid 4th century ) Metaphysics, in The Complete Works of Aristotle. ed. J. Barnes, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984, esp. books VII–X, XII. (Outlines the connections between goodness, function and reality.)
	Ayer, A.J. (1936) Language, Truth, and Logic, London: Gollancz; 2nd edn, 1946, ch. VI. (The founding statement of emotivism.)
	Butler, J. (1726) Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel, Sermons I, II, III, XI, XII; repr. in S. Darwall (ed.) Five Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel and A Dissertation Upon the Nature of Virtue, Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983, Sermons XI, XII. (The most influential ‘congruence’ argument of the eighteenth century, to the effect that self-love favours the practice of virtue; later adopted by David Hume and others.)
	Foot, P. (1961) ‘Goodness and Choice’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, supplementary vol.; repr. in Virtues and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978. (An influential twentieth-century presentation of the functional account of goodness.)
	Griffin, J. (1986) Well-Being, Oxford: Clarendon Press. (One of the most complete presentations of the view that the good is what we would desire under ideal conditions of knowledge and reflection.)
	Kant, I. (1785) Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten, trans. and ed. M. Gregor, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. (Introduces the ideas of unconditional value and of goodness of will; argues for the unconditional value of humanity and the good will.)
	Kant, I. (1788) Critik der practischen Vernunft, trans. L.W. Beck, Critique of Practical Reason, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1993. (Part 1, book I, ch. 2 deals with the relation between moral and natural goodness; part 1, book II deals with the relation between virtue and happiness.)
	Korsgaard, C.M. (1996) Creating the Kingdom of Ends, New York: Cambridge University Press. (Chaps 4, 8 and 9 concern the concept of unconditional value; ch. 10 discusses various theories of the relation between subjective and objective value.)
	Lewis, C.I. (1946) An Analysis of Knowledge and Valuation, La Salle, IL: Open Court. (Critical exploration of the concept of intrinsic value; introduces a new category, inherent value, in response to problems with the former category.)
	Mill, J.S. (1861) Utilitarianism, ed. G. Sher, Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 1979, chaps II, IV. (Uses Plato’s test of experience to identify the ‘higher’ pleasures, and provides a ‘proof’ that pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the only desirable things.)
	Moore, G.E. (1903) Principia Ethica, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971. (Argues that goodness must be an intrinsic non-natural property, and explains the idea of ‘organic unities’.)
	Moore, G.E. (1912) Ethics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, chaps IV, VII. (Presents Moore’s theory of the good in the context of a theory about right and wrong.)
	Moore, G.E. (1922) ‘The Conception of Intrinsic Value’, in Philosophical Studies, London: Kegan Paul. (Argues that final goods must be intrinsically valuable.)
	Nagel, T. (1970) The Possibility of Altruism, Oxford: Clarendon Press, reprinted Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978. (The most important examination of the relation between subjective and objective value written in the twentieth century, in which it is argued that all subjective values have objective correlates.)
	Nagel, T. (1986) The View From Nowhere, Oxford: Oxford University Press, chaps VIII, IX. (Modifying his earlier position, this work argues that only some subjective values have objective correlates.)
	Perry, R.B. (1926) General Theory of Value: Its Meaning and Basic Principles Construed in Terms of Interest, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (An influential work in twentieth-century American value theory, proposing that to be valuable means to be the object of any interest.)
	Plato (c. 380–367) Republic, trans. G.M.A. Grube, revised by C.D.C. Reeve, Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 1992. (Presents the Theory of Forms and an account of the fundamental role of the Form of the Good.)
	Rawls, J. (1971) A Theory of Justice, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, part III. (Ch. 7 argues that for a thing to be good is to have the properties it is rational to want in a thing of that kind; ch. 9 presents an argument for the ‘congruence’ of happiness and justice.)
	Stevenson, C.L. (1944) Ethics and Language, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. (The most complete and systematic development of the emotivist theory of evaluative language.)