Eudaimonia

By Taylor, C.C.W.

The literal sense of the Greek word eudaimonia is ‘having a good guardian spirit’: that is, the state of having an objectively desirable life, universally agreed by ...

Xenocrates (396–314 BC)

By Dillon, John

The Greek philosopher Xenocrates was the third head of the Platonic Academy. Like his predecessor Speusippus, he further developed Plato’s philosophy, but along more orthodox lines. Indeed, Xenocrates ...

Friendship

By Badhwar, Neera K.

Philosophical interest in friendship has revived after a long eclipse. This is due largely to a renewed interest in ancient moral philosophy, in the role of emotion in ...

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics has its origin in the ancient world, particularly in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. It has been revived following an article by G. E. M. ...

Self-interest

By Oneill, John

The concept of self-interest is used in two distinct ways. It sometimes refers to what is in a person’s interests, to well-being understood as what makes their life ...

Happiness

By Besser, Lorraine L.

Happiness is a fundamental, prudential value. It is something good for the person who has it. Most philosophers accept that there is a difference between happiness and well-being, ...

Ancient philosophy

By Sedley, David

The philosophy of the Greco-Roman world from the sixth century bc to the sixth century ad laid the foundations for all subsequent Western philosophy. Its greatest ...

Egoism and altruism

By Kraut, Richard

Henry Sidgwick conceived of egoism as an ethical theory parallel to utilitarianism: the utilitarian holds that one should maximize the good of all beings in the universe; the ...

Philo of Larissa (c.159–c.83 BC)

By Barnes, Jonathan

Philo, head of the Academy from 110 to 88 bc, likened philosophy to medicine. No doubt he was a conscientious therapist himself; but we know little enough ...

Virtue ethics

By Crisp, Roger

Virtue ethics has its origin in the ancient world, particularly in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. It has been revived following an article by G.E.M. Anscombe critical ...

Teleological ethics

By Korsgaard, Christine M.

The Greek telos means final purpose; a teleological ethical theory explains and justifies ethical values by reference to some final purpose or good. Two different types of ...

Aristotle (384–322 BC)

By Irwin, T.H.

Aristotle of Stagira is one of the two most important philosophers of the ancient world, and one of the four or five most important of any time or ...

Happiness

By Griffin, J.P.

In ordinary use, the word ‘happiness’ has to do with one’s situation (one is fortunate) or with one’s state of mind (one is glad, cheerful) or, typically, with ...

Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 BC)

By White, Stephen A.

Cicero, pre-eminent Roman statesman and orator of the first century bc and a prolific writer, composed the first substantial body of philosophical work in Latin. Rising from ...

Epictetus (AD c.50–c.120)

By Inwood, Brad

Epictetus was a Greek Stoic philosopher of the late first and early second centuries ad. He developed Stoic ideas of responsibility into a doctrine of autonomy and ...

Ethics

By Crisp, Roger

What is ethics? First, the systems of value and custom instantiated in the lives of particular groups of human beings are described as the ethics of these groups. ...

Hedonism

By Gosling, Justin

Hedonism is the doctrine that pleasure is the good. It was important in ancient discussions, and many positions were taken, from the view that pleasure is to be ...

Natural law in early modern philosophy

By Heydt, Colin

Are there moral norms for action applicable in all times and places? It was common in the early modern period to answer ‘Yes’ to this question and to ...

Practical reason and ethics

By O'Neill, Onora

Practical reason is reasoning which is used to guide action, and is contrasted with theoretical reason, which is used to guide thinking. Sometimes ‘practical reason’ refers to any ...

Ethics

What is ethics? First, the systems of value and custom instantiated in the lives of particular groups of human beings are described as the ethics of these groups. ...

Moral education

By White, John

This entry looks at three contemporary approaches to moral learning and education, all of which have roots in the history of philosophy. The first holds that just as ...

Moral luck

By Statman, Daniel

The term ‘moral luck’ was introduced by Bernard Williams in 1976 to convey the idea that moral status is, to a large extent, a matter of luck. For ...

Neoplatonism

By Siorvanes, Lucas

Neoplatonism was the final flowering of ancient Greek thought, from the third to the sixth or seventh century ad. Building on eight centuries of unbroken philosophical debate, ...

Aristippus the Elder (c.435–c.355 BC)

By Tsouna, Voula

Aristippus of Cyrene was a member of Socrates’ entourage who after Socrates’ death (399 bc) founded the Cyrenaic school. He was primarily interested in practical ethics. He ...

Musonius Rufus (1st century AD)

By Inwood, Brad

Gaius Musonius Rufus was a Stoic philosopher who taught in Rome. Active on the margins of political life, he was twice exiled and recalled. His surviving work focuses ...